Journal of Integrated Civil and Structural Engineering

Mother-tongue instruction in early grades and later English literacy: evidence from a four-year cohort

June 2026 - Vol 7 Num. 2

Policy has mandated mother-tongue instruction in the first three primary years for four decades, yet implementation is uneven. We followed 1,640 pupils across 52 schools from primary one to primary four, classifying schools by observed rather than declared language of instruction. Pupils in genuinely mother-tongue classrooms…